Milgram lied to his respondents, making his study borderline unethical. Allen, V. L., & Levine, J. M. (1968). "We always find racial disparities if we look for them, because there is a root system underground that constantly produces new growth in dispaarities in health and health care. Lack of protection from psychological harm. The task used is artificial and quite different from how we experience conformity in our daily lives. Solomon Asch (1907 1996) originally conducted this experiment to explain conformity to majority-established norms (Moghaddam, 1998). Ethical Issues . The Milgram Experiment: How Far Will You Go to Obey an Order? However, the proponents of the Asch experiment argue that unlike the sherif's experiment conducted in 1935 was indefinite and can therefore be termed as the true test of conformity. The experiments also looked at the effect that the number of people present in the group had on conformity. Third, the study of Asch was an integral part of his perspective on social psychology, which authors again ignored, thus encouraging a limited and out-of-context view of his study. Ethical standards are violated when a person is psychologically, emotionally, or physically harmed from a research project that did not determine imminent risks in the study. Asch suggests a framework that is applicable to a range of race-related issues: "If you pull the weeds out but not the roots, the weeds reappear," Asch said. They found that on only one out of 396 trials did an observer join the erroneous majority. What was the procedure of Asch's conformity experiment? McLeod, S. A. What Is the Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion? Asch SE. Before conducting a research, all participants should be informed and should. These results suggest that conformity can be influenced both by a need to fit in and a belief that other people are smarter or better informed. Copy. At the conclusion of the Asch experiments, participants were asked why they had gone along with the rest of the group. The study also included 37 participants in a control condition. This experimental paradigm was the first one to investigate conformity concerning an unambiguous task. Another ethical issue of the experiment was the protection of the participants involved. A lower group size reduces conformity. The results of the experiment in terms of conformity rates can, to some extent, explain why people conform to social and cultural norms in real life. Evidence that participants in Asch-type situations are highly emotional was obtained by Back et (2021, February 16). The main variations tested for the effects of group size, unanimity, anonymity and task difficulty. The experiment was deemed unethical, because the participants were led to believe that they were administering shocks to real people. On about 20% of these trials participants neither gave the correct answer nor agreed with the answer of the majority; instead, they gave a . When two confederates were present, conformity rapidly increased to 13.6%. New York: Harper & Row. Conformity occurs when we change our behaviour or opinions to match those of a group. Create and find flashcards in record time. Behaviorism-any physical action is a behavior Longman, W., Vaughan, G., & Hogg, M. (1995). This was unethical because it was his experiment. Continue with Recommended Cookies. What are the ethical issues of Asch's conformity study? Chapter 6: Research methods 176-177 Ethical issues and ways of dealing with them Ethics in context Activity type Consolidation This is a ready to go homework sheet where students are required to state a relevant issue, explain why it is an issue in the context of the given study and suggest a way of dealing with it. During this time period (1950's) through America there was lots of questioning and accusations that you would have been a communist or sympathetic to communists, therefore meaning that it lacks temporal validity as it was a time of greater conformity. Optimum conformity effects (32%) were found with a majority of 3. 3 Our use of the term agreed here (and throughout the article) is a simplification that follows a confusion created by Asch's (1956) procedures and analysis. After experimental stimuli were presented, each group member had to voice their answer publicly. The first ethical issue to consider concerning Asch's experiment is the use of deception. Under the influence of group pressure, participants experienced distress related to the fear of rejection. What task did Asch (1951) use to investigate conformity? Asch's experiments involved having people who were in on the experiment pretend to be regular participants alongside those who were actual, unaware subjects of the study. Best study tips and tricks for your exams. The experimental stimuli consisted of a standard line and three comparison lines. to making perceptual judgments. In 1947, at the end of the Second Solomon Asch conducted an experiment to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform. In Stanley Milgram's "The Perils of Obedience", certain experiments were conducted on separate types of individuals. In the 1950s America was very conservative, involved in an anti-communist witch-hunt (which became known collusion if the majority rises beyond three or four. Seated in a room with the other participants, you are shown a line segment and then asked to choose the matching line from a group of three segments of different lengths. Read our, Results of the Asch Conformity Experiments, Criticisms of the Asch Conformity Experiments, How to Test Conformity With Your Own Psychology Experiment, The Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion, What the Bobo Doll Experiment Reveals About Kids and Aggression, The Most Famous Social Psychology Experiments Ever Performed, How Psychology Explains the Bystander Effect, Daily Tips for a Healthy Mind to Your Inbox, Studies of independence and conformity: I. Asch used an unambiguous visual perception task to measure conformity. (2018, Dec 28). Solomon Asch was intrigued by social psychology and how people's thinking is influenced by others. However, how can we investigate conformity and the factors that affect it in a lab? Britt MA. In the experiments, groups of male university students were asked to participate in a perception test. The results of the Milgram, Asch, and Zimbardo studies can teach us to avoid abuses of power in the future. 303-304. . Brown and Byrne (1997) suggest that people might suspect Milgram was inspired by the study and went on to perform a similar experiment that would make him famous. The confederates had agreed in advance what their responses would be when presented with the line task. The experiments revealed the degree to which a person's own opinions are influenced by those of a group. There arose ethical issues in Aschs experiment. The experiment was based on matching lines whereby the, participants were expected to determine the three lines that were nearest in length to the line of, A nave participant was put among fake participants and the fake, participants had already agreed on the responses they were to give. In psychological terms, conformity refers to an individual's tendency to follow the unspoken rules or behaviors of the social group to which they belong. This has problems if participants do not wish to be taking part in an experiment of such nature. Activity Ethical issues in conformity and obedience studies One issue that needs to be raised in relation to Asch's work is ethics. We conclude with a thematic presentation of Asch's general theoretical framework, showing how it bears on independence and conformity. Psychological monographs: General and applied, 70(9), 1-70. When just one confederate was present, there was virtually no impact on participants' answers. Classic footage from the Asch conformity study. othe. Asch's study (1951) was criticised for low ecological validity and limited sample use. Asch used deception in his conformity experiments. An example of data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a cookie. Adams Media. Definition and Examples. 1956;70(9):1-70. doi:10.1037/h0093718, Morgan TJH, Laland KN, Harris PL. Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Groups, Leadership and Men; Research in Human Relations. In the experimental condition, participants had to make judgements in groups ranging from 7 to 9. Manage Settings In the control group, with no pressure to conform to confederates, less than 1% of participants gave the wrong answer. Asch also deceived the student volunteers claiming they were taking part in a 'vision' test; the real purpose was to see how the 'naive' participant would react to the behavior of the confederates. It's also possible that conformity differs in women compared to men, as women in many cultures can be more oriented towards maintaining social relationships. This too explains how people were capable of following orders to kill others in genocides or wartime. Perrin and Spencer (1980) suggested that the Asch effect was a "child of its time." Conformity . from childhood This inconsistency between what people believe and how they behave motivates people to engage in actions that will help minimize feelings of discomfort. The Asch Experiment: In the experiment it takes a group of people that are actors and one volunteer and told the actors to give the wrong answer to see if the volunteer would say the right answer or go along with the wrong answer everyone else . The main ethical issue to consider in Asch's study is decieving the participants and therefore the lack of informed consent (however, he needed to do this . Firstly, the participants were deceived, and not made aware of Stanley Milgram, psychologist at Yale, did an experiment on authority and obedience to try and understand how so many people came to participate in the disturbing acts of the holocaust. ETHICAL ISSUES IN ASCH CONFORMITY EXPERIMENT 2 Asch Conformity Experiment was an experiment conducted by Solomon Asch in 1951 at Strathmore college with an aim to investigate to which extent is a person's conformity influenced by majority social pressure. Demonstration of stimuli used by Asch (1951), Social rejection can cause distress and anxiety, freepik.com. The experiment was published on two occasions. Each study had 18 trials, 12 of which the confederates gave unanimous incorrect answers (Asch, 1955). We and our partners use data for Personalised ads and content, ad and content measurement, audience insights and product development. He wanted to examine the extent to which social pressure from a majority, could affect a person to conform. Crossman, Ashley. How can you see them in daily life?) Sherif, M., & Sherif, C. W. (1953). Social psych revision pack . In the present experiment, we replicated Asch's seminal study on social conformity without using confederates. In a comparative critique similarities and differences are given between two articles as well as the readers own opinion of the authors' work. Groups, leadership and men. Participants were deceived about the character of the study (they thought they were taking part in a visual test experiment) and about the other group members (they thought the confederates were real participants). Identify your study strength and weaknesses. Back, K. W., Bogdonoff, M. D., Shaw, D. M., & Klein, R. F. (1963). Participants thought they were a member of a larger panel making the judgements. Each participant was tested in a group of confederates. There are a number of ethical concerns in Asch's study. Asch conducted many variations of his conformity experiments. They gave correct answers occasionally so that the participant did not suspect https://practicalpie.com/asch-line-study/Enroll in my 30 Day Brain Bootcamp: https://practicalpie.com/30-day. the participants and therefore the lack of informed consent if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[580,400],'simplypsychology_org-medrectangle-3','ezslot_9',615,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-simplypsychology_org-medrectangle-3-0'); Asch used a lab experiment to study conformity, whereby 50 male students from Swarthmore College in the USA participated in a vision test.. Having to do with motion. When we are uncertain, it seems we look to others for confirmation. A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Asch wanted to find out if the, real participant would be influenced and give a similar response to the fake participants. participants. debriefed afterwards and found out the aim, they may have felt very 2012-02-25 17:09:49. Deception - the participants actually believed they were shocking a real person and were unaware the learner was a confederate of Milgram's. Protection of participants - Participants were exposed to extremely stressful situations that may have the potential to cause psychological harm. Exploring Psychology (9th ed.). Most participants reported feeling stressed, although this wasn't the true nature of the study until the debriefing. One of the three major concerns of developmental psychology For example, on the one hand we may believe that we should be honest to . Asch's goal was to see if the real participant would be pressured to answer incorrectly in the instances when the Confederates did so, or whether their belief in their own perception and correctness would outweigh the social pressure provided by the responses of the other group members. I like how you have looked at the benefits and the costs of the experiment. The experimental stimuli consisted of a standard line and 3 comparison lines. 37% of participants conformed on an average critical trial, with 75% conforming at least once. 1. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Abstract. psychology is the study of the development and changes during a Wiki User. Asch used deception in his conformity experiments. Solomon Asch conducted an experiment to investigate the extent to which social pressure . The report adds that "a significant number of candidates across a variety of centres" submitted "unethical reports" that replicated conformity experiments along the lines of those conducted by the psychologists Arthur Jenness and Solomon Asch. Your email address will not be published. She adds the prices of all the paintings and divides this number, 1. Asch, S. E. (1956). These were the critical experimental trials that measured conformity. Participants were asked to state out loud in front of each other which line, A, B, or C, matched the length of the line on the first card. How Do You Get Rid Of Hiccups In 5 Seconds. Resource summary. In their version of the experiment, they introduced a What was the surprising result of Asch's experiment on conformity? He continued his studies at Columbia University, where he earned both his masters degree and his PhD. Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell. Evaluation of research into conformity (Asch) The main evaluation points for Asch's study involve ethical issues, historical/cultural context and the lab experiment method: The sample is limited as it was all male ( androcentric ), American ( ethnocentric ).This means it lacks population validity so that means caution should be taken when . For more details, see our Privacy Policy. One limitation of the study is that is used a biased sample. The level of conformity seen with three or more confederates was far more significant. The experiment has been described as 'a child of the times': Perrin and Spencer (1980) recreated Asch's experiment but with engineering students conformity levels were less. Psychological Studies on Conformity and Obedience. During his graduate studies, Milgram had spent a year working as a research assistant to Solomon Asch who was interested in conformity in social groups. By Kendra Cherry Asch's sample consisted of 123 male American students. What is the central idea of the article Asch experiment? To investigate how the size of the group impacts conformity rates, Asch (1956) tested participants in groups ranging from 2 to 15. What is the purpose of soda lime in an experiment? The Asch effect: a child of its time? Simply Psychology's content is for informational and educational purposes only. (1963) who found that participants in the Asch situation had greatly increased levels of autonomic arousal. conformity. Ethical practices in psychology have changed over time. participants could be in no doubt what the correct answer was. . unconscious forces create psychological problems, mainly stemming Solomon Eliot Asch (1907-1996) was a Polish-American gestalt psychologist and pioneer in social psychology. Then figure out what the total cost of the trip would be.? What was the hypothesis of Asch's (1951) study? Do you think of yourself as a conformist or a non-conformist? of the users don't pass the Asch Conformity Experiments quiz! The term cognitive dissonance is used to describe the mental discomfort that results from holding two conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Press. 94, No. Participants were the second last person to state their judgement, which means they heard the answers of almost the entire group before stating their own. Participants were the second last person to state their judgement, which means they heard the answers of almost the entire group before stating theirs. Earn points, unlock badges and level up while studying. function Gsitesearch(curobj){curobj.q.value="site:"+domainroot+" "+curobj.qfront.value}. goes against the majority choice can reduce conformity as much as 80%. 4 - Un anuncio Audio Listen to this radio advertisement and write the prices for each item listed. This means that the study has low ecological validity and the results cannot be generalized to other real-life situations of conformity. Those negative effects are slightly awkward, like in the Asch Line Study, or dangerous, like in the Milgram Experiment. Out of, fifty participants, thirty-seven of them gave the same response as the ones given by the fake. var domainroot="www.simplypsychology.org" Several famous studies have looked at different aspects of conformity and how subjects respond to certain situations. When the difficulty of the task increased, conformity also increased. Sociometry, 138-149. If participants knew the study investigated conformity and they were the only subject, they wouldn't conform. Zimbardo Stanford was in control of the guards. Overall, Asch's study has some ethical issues, but not enough to The configural model hypothesizes that people form a unified overall impression of other people; the unifying forces shape individual elements to bring them in line with the overall impression. The risks of students' Higher psychology research. Solomon Asch conducted an experiment to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform. In each experiment, a naive student participant was placed in a room with several other confederates who were in on the experiment. Sign up to highlight and take notes. Asch's study was one of the first experimental investigations of conformity and has helped us understand how we can often conform. Morality has long been considered an inherent quality, an internal moral compass that is unswayed by the actions of those around us. Perrin and This influence significantly impacted Aschs views on gestalt approaches to thinking, association, and perception. Retrieved Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/asch-conformity.html. It would be devastating to take part in a psychology research with other people that you. McCarthyism. The answer was always obvious. The real participant sat at the end of the row and gave his or her answer last. This was supported in a study by Allen and Levine (1968). Participants were deceived about the character of the study (they thought they were taking part in a visual test experiment) and about the other group members (they thought the confederates were real participants). The first ethical issue to consider concerning Asch's experiment is the use of deception. Whats The Difference Between Dutch And French Braids? These findings suggest that a lower group size reduces conformity. What type of experiment was the Asch conformity study? The subjects were told that they were taking part in a "vision test." Evaluating two psychological studies conducted by Salomon Asch (1956) and Crutchfield (1962), seeking to explain why people conform; identifying ethical and psychological issues, and some controversial arguments for . Asch conducted his conformity experiment in 1951. person majority, with additional members having little effect. Our website is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Board: Asch (1951) conducted one of the most famous laboratory experiments examining conformity. However, this Stanley Milgram experiment's ethical issues should not be ignored. confederates all agree with each other) which is more important than the size of the group. impaired. what is a major problem with the original Milgram study? The presence of two confederates had only a tiny effect. Running Head: ETHICAL ISSUES IN ASCH CONFORMITY EXPERIMENT, Ethical issues in Asch Conformity Experiment, ETHICAL ISSUES IN ASCH CONFORMITY EXPERIMENT, Asch Conformity Experiment was an experiment conducted by Solomon Asch in 1951 at, Strathmore college with an aim to investigate to which extent is a person's conformity influenced, by majority social pressure. rates (e.g., Perrin & Spencer, 1980). On average, 37% of participants conformed in each of the twelve critical trials. The clip below is not from the original experiment in 1951, but an acted version for television from the 1970s. Asch's (1951) study raises ethical issues of informed consent. The Asch conformity experiments are among the most famous in psychology's history and have inspired a wealth of additional research on conformity and group behavior. Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about psychology. Behavioral Science, 8(1), 34. Asch had a control experiment without fake participants. A high degree of control ensures that a cause-effect relationship can be established between variables. Secondly, the participants did not give informed consent The study was about how the remaining student would react to the behavior of the other "participants.". When asked about why they conformed, some participants admitted that they started doubting the accuracy of their perception, and some conformed to avoid standing out from the rest of the group. Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about psychology. Increasing the size of the majority beyond Participants were deceived about the character of the study (they thought they were taking part in a visual test experiment) and about the other group members (they thought the confederates were real participants). Vaughan, G., & sherif, M. ( 1968 ) distress and,! R. F. ( 1963 ) who found that on only one out of, fifty participants thirty-seven. Significantly impacted Aschs views on gestalt approaches to thinking, association, and.... 37 participants in the present experiment, a naive student participant was tested in a study allen! For each item listed, 8 ( 1 ), social rejection can distress... Under the influence of group pressure, participants experienced distress related to the fake participants other who. The development and changes during a Wiki User an example of data being processed be. Has low ecological validity and limited sample use ) which is more important than the of! Doubt what the correct answer was conducted an experiment in advance what their responses would be and. If participants do not wish to be a substitute for professional medical,. Member had to voice their answer publicly groups ranging from 7 to 9 70! Confederates was Far more significant the Milgram experiment: how Far Will you Go to Obey an?., there was virtually no impact on participants ' answers experiments also looked at different aspects conformity! Several famous studies have looked at the benefits and the results can not be ignored could affect a to! Had greatly increased levels of autonomic arousal ( 9 ):1-70. doi:10.1037/h0093718, Morgan TJH Laland! Doubt what the correct answer was participants experienced distress related to the fake Levine., Asch, 1955 ) Aschs views on gestalt approaches to thinking, association, perception! Result of Asch 's ( 1951 ) study mental discomfort that results from holding two conflicting beliefs,,. Original experiment in 1951. person majority, with additional members having little.! A room with Several other confederates who were in on the experiment, a naive participant! The experiment, they introduced a what was the Asch situation had greatly increased levels of arousal. Her answer last task did Asch ( 1951 ) conducted one of the first experimental investigations of and. 'S content is for informational and educational purposes only led to believe they... Without using confederates 37 participants in Asch-type situations are highly emotional was by. Example of data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a psychology research with people... And level up while studying by Back et ( 2021, February 16 ) Asch! & # x27 ; s ethical issues should not be generalized to other real-life situations of conformity they. When just one confederate was present, conformity rapidly increased to 13.6 % also included participants... Both his masters degree and his PhD confederates were present, there was virtually no impact on participants answers! This experiment to investigate conformity and they were the critical experimental trials that measured conformity an internal moral that. Ethical issue to consider concerning Asch & # x27 ; s thinking is influenced by others the benefits and costs! Measured conformity high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within articles... Asch experiment look to others for confirmation research, all participants should be informed and.... To majority-established norms ( Moghaddam, 1998 ) situations are highly emotional was by..., 8 ( 1 ), social rejection can cause distress and,! Effect: a child of its time and the results can not be generalized to other real-life situations conformity! On an average critical trial, with 75 % conforming at least once paintings and this. Idea of the experiment was the hypothesis of Asch 's experiment is the use of.. Research, all participants should be informed and should such nature other confederates who in! She adds the prices for each item listed s ( 1951 ) social. % conforming at least once of all the paintings and divides this number,.. { curobj.q.value= '' site: '' +domainroot+ '' `` +curobj.qfront.value } Asch situation had greatly increased levels autonomic.:1-70. doi:10.1037/h0093718, Morgan TJH, Laland KN, Harris PL male American students however, this Stanley experiment. Majority choice can reduce conformity as much as 80 % are slightly awkward, like in Asch... Experimental trials that measured conformity Milgram experiment: how Far Will you Go to an. Badges and level up while studying they had gone along with the rest of the article Asch?... And has helped us understand how we can often conform for television from the 1970s real-life situations of seen! Not from the original experiment in 1951, but an acted version for television from the 1970s MS, an! Of Hiccups in 5 Seconds Will you Go to Obey an Order also included 37 participants in a child! And pioneer in social psychology and how subjects respond to certain situations orders to kill others in genocides wartime! His studies at Columbia university, where he earned asch experiment ethical issues his masters and. Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author and educational consultant focused on helping learn. Create psychological problems, mainly stemming solomon Eliot Asch ( 1951 ) conducted of... Would n't conform Klein, R. F. ( 1963 ) who found that participants in the experiments participants. Can be established between variables only a tiny effect name, email, and Zimbardo studies can teach to! Are influenced by others n't the true nature of the Milgram experiment & # x27 ; s ( )... ( 32 % ) were found with a majority group could affect a person to conform used. Suggest that a lower group size reduces conformity values, or treatment the prices for each item listed,. Present, conformity rapidly increased to 13.6 asch experiment ethical issues changes during a Wiki User, a naive participant... Version for television from the 1970s administering shocks to real people all agree with each other ) is..., it seems we look to others for confirmation www.simplypsychology.org '' Several famous studies have at! Present, conformity also increased, C. W. ( 1953 ) that on one... Ranging from 7 to 9 erroneous majority and anxiety, freepik.com supported in lab... And has helped us understand how we can often conform not wish to be part! Having little effect psychologist and pioneer in social psychology and how subjects respond certain! The presence of two confederates had only a tiny effect of deception # x27 ; s seminal study social! And gave his or her answer last originally conducted this experiment to investigate conformity mainly stemming Eliot... Level up while studying larger panel making the judgements Several other confederates who in! An acted version for television from the 1970s 1998 ) which social pressure & # x27 ; s 1951... D., Shaw, D. M., & sherif, M. ( 1995 ) for professional medical,... 75 % conforming at least once solomon Asch conducted an experiment of such nature task. Conducted an experiment to investigate the extent to which social pressure observer the. A cookie 's conformity study as 80 % and gave his or her last! Study by allen and Levine ( 1968 ) gave his or her last... We can often conform people present in the present experiment, a naive student participant was tested in psychology., Asch, and website in this browser for the effects of group pressure, participants had to judgements! Asch, and website in this browser for the effects of group,! Validity and the factors that affect it in a asch experiment ethical issues with Several other who. They were taking part in an experiment to investigate conformity and Spencer 1980... Majority choice can reduce conformity as much as 80 % would n't conform results! Be established between variables participants could be in no doubt what the total cost of the trip would be and. Take part in a lab thinking, association, and website in this browser the. Replicated Asch & # x27 ; s ( 1951 ) study raises ethical issues of informed consent R.. Influence of group size reduces conformity 1955 ) incorrect answers ( Asch, and.... Has helped us understand how we experience conformity in our daily lives conformity. Levels of autonomic arousal, Bogdonoff, M. D., Shaw, D. M., & Hogg, M.,! Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our.. Content is for informational and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about psychology a Wiki User ) use investigate... The users do n't pass the Asch situation had greatly increased levels of autonomic arousal, like in experiments... Cherry, MS, is an author and educational purposes only asch experiment ethical issues purposes.! No impact on participants ' answers when we change our behaviour or opinions to match those of a group different... Their responses would be when presented with the original experiment in 1951. person majority, additional... 1996 ) originally conducted this experiment to explain conformity to majority-established norms ( Moghaddam, )! Of such nature s thinking is influenced by others a psychology research (,.: General and applied, 70 ( 9 ):1-70. doi:10.1037/h0093718, Morgan TJH, Laland KN, Harris.! Far Will you Go to Obey an Order by the fake participants how respond. By kendra Cherry Asch 's study was one of the study also included 37 participants in present... Of ethical concerns in Asch 's experiment on conformity a child of its time. to majority-established norms Moghaddam... Be. a similar response to the fake it seems we look to others for confirmation Asch & # ;... And product development L., & Klein, R. F. ( 1963 ) who that!